(Population Research Institute of Xiamen University, 07 Han Jian order)
First, Habermas's concept of power
(a) What is the power
1 . What power, political science there has been both empirical and normative interpretation of Marxist paradigm. Empiricism can be traced back to Hobbes, the most important representatives are Max Weber, Normative uphold and Aristotle, who is a modern interpretation of its Arendt. Max Weber defined as the power to impose their will upon others the possibility of action. Parsons further developed this concept of power understood as an attribute of the system, power is defined as a social system using various means to achieve the collective objective of capacity. Power system analysis in the political system means that control over the various means of coercion. (Narrow sense of political power - the executive power)
against the Daoxing Arendt, from the normative understanding of the sense of power, her outstanding contribution to political science is to propose the concept of communicative power: power not only the equivalent of capacity of human action, and the equivalent of people acting in the capacity of power is not personal property, but the collective, only when the collective to maintain cohesion when to continue. For Arendt, the power is not what some may occupy, but common action among the people arising from, the common action if people disappear, the power is gone. In Arendt view, the most important power is through the interaction between people and the formation of a common will possess the power of this force (power) is the most important powers. So power to the common will of the people, this demonstrated the common will to power is the power exchanges. Such exchanges have the power is the power of the people. Arendt purpose of the rationality of Weber's authority as
2.
Habermas Habermas power integrated concept of Hannah Arendt and the power of Parsons put forward their own interpretation of power. can not produce power. This is the incompetence of those who place the rights, they must be borrowed from the power of power producers. special), and from the administrative systems of government power (Parsons) combination. Habermas is different from the business talk about the concept of political power, Arendt, and Parsons, he acknowledged the power of the status of contacts, but has denied that he did not
executive powers, but only to return executive power to the people being.
(b) administrative power, communication power, social power
Habermas to political power into the executive power (in the narrow sense of political power), communication power.
1. administrative power (the administration broad power to narrow the political power --- --- legislative, judicial, administrative power narrow): The law gives the executive power.
2. relations of power (by the Hannah Arendt): For Habermas, the so-called power exchanges, is free to discuss the public domain powers for the legislature have the power of the administration of justice. People in the entire social life to national life, the way to form their own words and ideas will further determine the will of society and the state, which is an intangible, but the final decision from the role of the force.
3. social power (the executive power, the power relations of social power than the third power): the so-called social power refers to the actors with their own wealth and power to impose their will on the ability of others . Some people have more wealth of knowledge, some people have more economic power, some organizations become social groups, they will use their power to influence the political participation of others in the process, and access to their own interests. Habermas in the social life of these factors as Habermas believes that no society can not eliminate the impact of social rights, but an independent civil society can inhibit healthy social power, to prevent it from usurping executive powers. So we can see that Habermas is not advocating elimination of inequalities of social power, but by an independent, civil society to curb its influence, Habermas believe that even if there is economic inequality, but also to create political freedom and equal and democratic environment.
(c) administrative power, communication power, social power relations
1. exchanges power is the basis of executive power, executive power is transformed from the power contacts. [By law]
Habermas stressed the power of sanctions communication functions, organizational functions and implementation of the functions rely on administrative powers to carry out, or in his words, the exchanges of power to . In Habermas, democracy and the rule of law to the executive power can not serve the interests of the minority, nor the privileged interest groups, but for the common good of all people. In order to make the executive power for the interests of all the people, then the executive power should be the common will of the people of the guidance and control. (Republican tradition)
2. Exchanges of power and the interaction between social power.
For Habermas, the interaction between power and social power, there is interaction. On the one hand, social power depends on public power. Even if the various social groups and organizations, but if they are raised, people are not living in the world of the broad resonance, then the questions they can not produce a political effect, can not enter the political will and political the field of opinion formation. In this sense, the power to suppress the social power relations. On the other hand, depends on social power relations of power, depending on the strength of various social groups. Habermas, said: A democratic system must have independent social groups and organizations to ask questions, contend the government. These associations are in liberal political culture types and social types. These social groups can not be manipulated by political power, and should be relatively independent. They can affect the public, but can not control their own power of thought and freedom of public discussion. For Habermas, these social organizations and public sector organizations are the foundation of civil society, rather than the public sector itself. They can ask questions to the public domain, but can not control people's views on these issues. In this sense, social power has also been discussion in the public domain exchanges generated by the power constraints.
3. exchanges of power for social rights and restriction of power.
in Habermas's theory, the exchange of power acquired special status as the basis for ensuring the legitimacy of political power and conditions, as control of political power, social power and improper for a powerful means of intervention. For Habermas, the democratic system is not a partisan struggle the most important, not the regular election system, not the elite and representatives of a variety of different interests to compromise between, but in the public domain for the free discussion of all social issues and consultations. Such consultations will not only change people's needs and interests of the guidance, and control of social power and administrative authority to ensure the legitimacy of political power. In this sense, Habermas advocated by the democratic system is a kind of community (posed by the public to discuss civil society, the political public sphere) to control the power (including political power and social power) of the democratic system.
(b) of the Civil Society
Habermas reason to go back to the early works of civil society and public sphere topics of discourse in order to give it the basis of democratic theory in sociology. Break with the student movement since then, Habermas has been working to find a need to resort to violence against the proletarian revolution and the liberation theory, discourse theory of democracy, public consultation, free debate on the course in addressing social conflict and moral superiority , but need to find practical discourse of a democratic political forces, and civil society and public areas of this foundation.
people to find in the literature on
(a) of the early The most important works. In this work. Habermas first phase of a complete understanding of the concept of civil society: it is the capitalist market economy with the development of the formation, independent of the political state of private self-field. It is itself composed of two parts, one is the system of capitalism based on private ownership of the market system, including the labor market, capital market and commodities market and its control mechanisms; the second is composed of private, independent of the political state public domain, it is a social and cultural system, and other organizations. In this way, the entire social structure was divided into two parts: one including the market and public spheres, including the areas of private autonomy, first as a political state exists in the field of public power. In
to the late period of monopoly capitalism, this situation has fundamentally changed. The state monopoly capitalism, large-scale policy and the implementation of welfare policy, the past is now the private affairs of the affairs of state, in turn, the past state of affairs has now become a private transaction, which a Thus, the separation of state and society toward the integration of the social structure which the people suffered very serious damage to the public domain, which also collapsed, which makes the surface prosperity of the capitalist hidden crises, the most prominent is the legal crisis, the capitalist countries can not be maintained no longer essential to their survival in the public domain from the power of reason and loyalty from the masses. Based on this understanding, Habermas had to change their theory construction in favor of the concept of public domain, a new paradigm rooted in being, the concept of civil society also will be changed, so the transition to the second stage .
(b) of the late author of Habermas clearly states: core, some non-governmental, non-economic ties and the voluntary association, they make contacts in the public domain structure rooted in the social composition of the living world into. composed of civil society there are those societies more or less spontaneously, organizations and movements, their impact on the formation of private spheres of life to those issues resonate with feelings of choice, concentration, and after amplification after the introduction of the public domain. to discuss and resolve the problem of widespread public concern that talks need to organized public domain be formed within the framework of, and to achieve this institutionalization of those of the Commonwealth, would constitute the core of civil society. removed out, and become an independent, civil society and independent of the political system, economy, social and cultural system of the pure, the life of the world organization and mechanism.
and early analysis of different, Habermas now believe that the whole social system seems composed of three sub-systems, namely, political system, economic system and socio-cultural system. Among them, the political and economic system toward the integration, and became one, constitutes a powerful system (system); and socio-cultural system of the Opposition and criticism as the system forces constitute the life-world (lifeworld), the civil society part.
first phase of the analysis model: the political state (public power field) - Civil society (economic fields + public domain);
second phase of the analysis model: the system (political + economy) - Civil Society (life world).
life-world equivalent of the civil society,UGG boots, but the focus of the two different concepts of life focused on the functional analysis of the world, including cultural, social, and personality of three parts; civil society focus on social organization, a variety of voluntary of social groups.
Habermas's Civil society participation in political life is often reflected in social movements, these social movements have with aggressive defensive to offensive, the social movements trying to bring social issues and propose ways to grasp the problem and problem-solving program, the value of the norms that their own understanding, in order to change public opinion and influence political bodies, defensive is that it attempts to resist external forces and the erosion of social change to maintain their own sub-cultural and political identity.
(c) of the Civil Society: Democracy backyard?
civil society as a form of communicative action by the social network, constitute the basis of the political public sphere, there is no independent civil society, not all forms of social solidarity, the spirit of individuals will fall into paralysis, and cultural resources will depletion, individual and collective identity will be rigid, the society will fall into mutual suspicion among the last totalitarian will swoop. Because of this, civil society is the real social basis of democracy. Habermas's civil society and public trust areas of social interaction power, that scattered the public domain, mobile, pluralistic public debate and consultations needed to generate the political potential of democracy, civil society and public sphere that can maintain adequate vigilance and ability to judge people only in the context of the bourgeois democratic state constitution to achieve. Harrington to the public a sense of social democracy as a backyard. ?
Third, the political public sphere
(a) What is in the public domain
in public opinion formation in which things can be. to all citizens that are guaranteed. in every private party, the formation of public bodies as part of the conversation has generated the public domain. Then, they are neither as businessmen and professionals that private business, nor as a legitimate member of the social hierarchy of state bureaucracy as subject to legal restrictions. As citizens of the way to unlimited consultations,bailey UGG boots, they act as a public body - that is, for affairs of public interest parties, freedom of association and freedom of expression. in a large public bodies, this means of communication needs to pass a special message and the recipient of the information. Today, newspapers, magazines, radio and television is public domain media. When public discussion related to the activities involved with the state object, we call the political public sphere to the public domain with respect to literature. sense of the public sphere the public domain. The public sphere is best described as one on the content, views, opinions exchange network is the public sphere is neither the content of communication, nor is the function of communication, but the interaction of social space. There, communication flow in a particular way is to filter and integrated, making cluster together based on specific topics of public opinion or public opinion. Simply put, members of the public sphere of society involved in political life, citizenship and democratic public forum sites.
civil society and public areas are two main concepts of Habermas, but the relationship between them was not been clear. Generally speaking, civil society is an aspect of modern social structure, and public domain is its political expression. Civil society is the carrier of the public sphere, a strong public sphere depends on a robust and vibrant civil society.
(b) of the public sphere functions
1. the political public sphere it has the defense function is to prevent violations of state for isolation of the private sector with, the political system to prevent the expansion of the living world;
2. the political public sphere there is a positive function of the construction of public opinion and organized political movement to amplify social pressure, resulting in a certain momentum, through extensive debate to clarify issues, make recommendations for decision-making authority for the issue of possible solutions;
3. an early warning system, social issues receptors, but with non-specific sensitivity of the sensor of the whole society. Utopia is possible, it is because of independent political power and class relations in the public domain, which constitutes the personal freedom and political democracy.
(c) public opinion (public opinion)
the public domain is different from the private sector the most important sign is the ability to shape public opinion. completely separate areas, but the issues and his ilk will have a field pass to another field. Habermas pointed out that the >
public media, public opinion the most important public space, Habermas pointed out that requirements to strengthen it; as a judge,UGGs, they should face the political and social pressure to maintain their independence; they should respond to public concerns, organize and equitable distribution issues, triggering criticism, described the face of the legalization of the political process requirements, the power of the media should thus neutral to prevent the hidden administrative and social power into political influence. Public opinion of the soul. Public opinion once lost its social critical function ceased to exist, the public also will be the collapse of the public domain. Only to maintain critical public media, independence, fairness, neutrality can the public sphere as a platform for democratic practice. Firmly believe that capitalism can exist a fair and open public opinion, is that Western constitutional democracies Harrington important sociological premise. Although Habermas recognizes that public opinion in a capitalist society will be drawn from the impact of power and administrative power, but it also contains the .
Fourth, the Democratic legislative model
Although discourse theory of democracy to give special status to the public domain, making it the foundation of all authority. But in the public domain does not directly rule,UGG boots cheap, it is only through the work of public opinion: influence into political power --- that the decision becomes binding only if --- the potential impact of the political authorities of their beliefs and decisions, determine the voters, legislators and officials act. as the same social power , based on the political influence of public opinion can be transformed into political power only through institutionalized procedures. Here Habermas
of three from the legislative and political initiatives to the political model.
1. inside initiative model. The political initiative from the political leaders, the issues involved in the political exchange and circulation within the system, the public be excluded from the legislative process, the Clearly, this non-democratic legislative model.
2. Mobilization. That the formation of democratic decision-making model, the political initiative from the political system itself, but for their own programs or to facilitate their own through the program can be successfully implemented in future, need to mobilize the support of the public domain.
3. external initiatives mode. Truly democratic legislative model, produced by public sector to mobilize public pressure to force the political system to consider the issue, this model has the advantage of the political system of the center and the edge of civil society together. Habermas thought to involve socially sensitive and critical issue is often overlooked members of the public always play a positive role in society. Habermas is against populist democracy, but also against the pure parliamentary democracy. Should be
--- Wild, anarchic and lawless, if not control, society will fall into disorder. Political consultations Habermas is to avoid the tyranny of the paradox of democracy, highlighting the rational features of democratic politics.
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